Clear, readable, attractively designed, and enhanced
by numerous photographs, charts, and other illustrations, this book
provides an excellent overview of the major questions and issues related
to Lumbee language. It begins by explaining that even though the Lumbee
stopped using their ancestral language generations ago, their language
is nevertheless distinctive. Called Lumbee English, it is categorized
by linguists as a dialect of American English. It sounds “different”
to people outside Robeson County (Lumbee people are often asked where
they come from); and it also sounds different from the speech of African
Americans and European Americans in Robeson County. Even the Lumbee
Act of 1956 (PL
84-570; 84th Congress, 2nd session) notes the tribe’s “.
. . distinctive appearance and manner of speech.”
The book provides background information on the Lumbee
community, discussing the importance of education, Pembroke as the tribe's
cultural center, previous names of the tribe, assistance from the state
government, and the limited nature of federal support. The authors also
address the question of cultural development and assert that change
does not threaten cultural identity; it may, in fact, strengthen it.
They aptly state, “The loss of the ancestral language or languages
by the Lumbee is a cultural, historical, and scientific tragedy, but
the irrepressible and malleable nature of their culture in maintaining
language identity through the replacement language, English, is a testament
to the adaptability of human nature and the strength of the connection
between language and culture” (p. 3).
Nature of Lumbee English
In describing the vocabulary, pronunciation, and sentence
structure of Lumbee English, the authors note that there are a few words
that are distinctively Lumbee, but more that are also found in other
dialects of the southern Coastal Plain. The hallmarks of Lumbee English
are its ways of combining structures. Lumbee English uses some pronunciations
that are also found in Outer Banks English and Appalachian English (see
the chart on page 68). One distinctive grammatical feature is the use
of bes. Lumbee English differs depending on the age of the speaker,
the community of residence, and the speaker’s contacts and professional
training.
Lumbee English and language correctness
Some features of Lumbee Vernacular English, such as
be in “I’m been there,” the prefix a- in
“They were a-huntin’,” and the double negative in “They
didn’t go nowhere” are nonstandard. Most structures in Lumbee
English were, however, deemed acceptable at some point in the history
of English. The authors discuss nonstandard features in terms of the
dominant culture’s perceptions and the “linguistic inferiority
principle.” They emphasize, “Linguists, who study the intricate
patterning of language apart from its social evaluation, stand united
against the definition of any dialect as a corrupt version of the socially
favored variety” (pp. 18-19). This section of the book concludes
with a very important observation: “Lumbee English is certainly
different from standard English and is not the language of mainstream
America, but it has linguistic authenticity and serves an essential,
symbolic role in marking cultural and ethnic identity. There can be
no other reason for its survival in the face of persistent pressure
to assimilate to the language of mainstream America” (p. 21).
The ancestral languages of Lumbee English
Difficulties in making a determination of the ancestral
language(s) arise from the facts that there is little historical documentation
on this matter; by the mid-1700s the Lumbee no longer used their native
language exclusively; and archaeological evidence shows that the Lumbee
River was, for thousands of years before European contact, a zone of
cultural interaction, making it likely that the Lumbee developed from
an amalgamation of other native groups. The three main language groups
in the Carolinas at the beginning of the historic period were the Algonquian,
the Iroquoian, and the Eastern Siouan.
The roots of Lumbee English
This section addresses the development of Lumbee English
and influenc
es from the English colonists, the Highlanders and Ulster
Scots, and African Americans. It provides a more detailed discussion
of the major features (vocabulary, pronunciation, and sentence structure)
compared to other dialects, with several useful charts.
Dialect and culture
In this section, the authors conclude, “Study
of Lumbee English indicates that it is a robust, distinctive dialect
that embodies important dimensions of a community-based culture. That
the emblematic role of language has shifted from an ancestral language
to a distinctive dialect of English is a testament to the linguistic
adaptability, resiliency, and vitality of the Lumbee language community”
(pp. 78-79).
The book ends with an appendix listing articles, books,
theses, and dissertations on Lumbee English and an extensive list of
references for the book as a whole.
Key source